Enmities ancient and modern: Britain's forgotten battlefields

Students who write essays about England's great battle of 20 September 1066 invariably have their dates wrong. They mean 14 October, when King Harold's men were up against the Normans at Hastings - or the engagement at Stamford Bridge, near York, just before it.

The September date does have a significance, though. It marks the Battle of Fulford - the third, forgotten great conflict of that year - and campaigners believe they are on the brink of winning a battle of their own to preserve its site against a 700-home development plan.

Ruth Kelly, Secretary of State for Local Government, is due to rule next month on the outcome of a public inquiry on plans by Persimmons Homes to build on the site of the battle between King Harold's Anglo-Saxons and a Norwegian army, on the outskirts of York.

The developers, backed by archaeological research, say there is insufficient physical evidence to show its specific location at Germany Beck in Fulford. But Scandinavian weapons experts have confirmed that metal objects found there include axes and a Viking sword and arrow heads. This could be the evidence identifying this site as the former swamp where Harold's northern reserves were annihilated by the Norwegians, who stepped across their bodies in their haste to cross the river Ouse.

The defeat forced Harold to march north with his elite troops to face the invaders at Stamford Bridge, before returning, victorious but exhausted, to face William of Normandy at Hastings.

The archaeologist Mari Wickerts, of the Gothenburg Museum in Sweden, said the discoveries looked like fragments from a stabbing sword that Norse warriors carried. "They were more brittle than the normal sword so would be more likely to be broken," he said. Dr Arthur MacGregor, curator of antiquities at the Ashmolean Museum in Oxford, confirmed that other objects discovered at the site were Scandinavian arrowheads, while Peter Lindbom, a Swedish expert at Uppsala University, also agreed it was of Scandinavian origin.

Michael Rayner, the Battlefields Trust's co-ordinator, considers the lack of awareness of Fulford to be a tragedy and believes the toll taken on Harold by this northern distraction to be a significant factor in his army's eventual defeat at Hastings. In effect, Fulford changed the course of history, they say.

"[The new finds] are the 'smoking gun' we have always been looking for," said Chas Jones, chairman of the Fulford Battlefield Society. "We told the inquiry inspector that only the slightest suspicion that this could be the site would be enough under the relevant legislation to stop the development. Now we have much more than that."

York Council said it was "inappropriate" to comment as the plans are subject to a public inquiry. But Peter Morris, commercial director of Persimmon Homes Yorkshire, said he did not accept the Battle of Fulford took place at the site. He said: "We would be interested in viewing any remains that may have been found on site ... along with specialist analysis to find out exactly where they were found, as we understand that the land is privately owned."

Battlefields that deserve to be better remembered

1 Maldon, 10 AUGUST 991

Where: Maldon, Essex.

Who: Saxons under Ealdorman Brihtnoth vs Vikings, probably under Olaf Tryggvason.

What happened: Brihtnoth raised a militia of 3-4,000 men in Essex to fight the Vikings, who had just attacked Ipswich and threatened the rest of East Anglia. Brihtnoth was killed and the Saxons abandoned the site in droves, but so many Vikings died that they did not hold Maldon. There is no monument to the site and no information on-site, though the National Trust has erected a small plaque near the causeway. The Battlefields Trust believes it should be better preserved.

2 Hastings, 14 OCTOBER 1066

Where: Hastings, East Sussex.

Who: English under King Harold vs Normans under William of Normandy.

What happened: William attacked with cavalry while Harold's men, possibly weary after travelling to Yorkshire and back to fight the Vikings, were on foot. William triumphed after a day's fighting. The battlefield is well preserved but conservationists point to superior commemorations at Bayeux, where the famous tapestry is kept. Plans for a road across the site sparked outrage nine years ago.

3 Battle of the Standard, 22 AUGUST 1138

Where: Two miles north of Northallerton, north Yorkshire.

Who: Scottish under King David I vs English, possibly under Walter d'Espec, Sheriff of York.

What happened: The first major engagement between the English and the Scots since the Norman conquest and one of just two major battles during the civil war of Stephen and Matilda. David had superior numbers but the English were ready and saw off the Scots inside two hours. A monument was restored in 2003 and it is hoped an access route, currently overgrown, might be made accessible again.

4 Irfon Bridge, 11 DECEMBER 1282

Where: Builth Wells, Powys, Wales.

Who: English vs Welsh, led by Llewelyn Ein Lyw Olaf (Llywelyn the Last).

What happened: Llywelyn, the last native prince of Wales, was killed by an English soldier, Stephen de Frankton, from Shropshire. Llywelyn's head was paraded through London to celebrate the supposed end of Welsh independence. The monument to this legendary figure is a granite stone erected in 1902. A sign in Cilmeri village is faded, which leaves only the local Prince Llewelyn pub.

5 Falkirk, 22 JULY 1298

Where: Falkirk, West Lothian.

Who: English army under Edward I vs Scots under William Wallace.

What happened: This was a major engagement in the battle for Scottish independence, and Wallace's forces were destroyed. There is no evidence of the site's significance, though, and the Battlefields Trust - which believes this is another site under imminent threat from commercial developers - has called for new historical research which could lead to investment in the site as a tourist location.

6 Barnet, 14 APRIL 1471

Where: Barnet, Hertfordshire.

Who: Yorkist troops under Edward IV vs Lancastrian troops led by Warwick "The Kingmaker".

What happened: Huge forces were deployed on both sides and though this battle did not decide the Wars of the Roses it was still of great significance. Edward IV secured a resounding victory and in doing so overcame the second most powerful man in the kingdom. Campaigners in Barnet want to see the battle recognised. There are no public footpaths across the battlefield and one of the best ways to view it is the A1000 road, which runs across the battlefield. The Battlefields Trust is helping to identify the specific location of the original battle in the hope of securing better access.

7 Bosworth, 22 AUGUST 1485

Where: Near Nuneaton, Warwickshire.

Who: King Richard III vs Henry Tudor.

What happened: The Battle of Bosworth Field is one of the best known English battles. It saw a rebel force dramatically defeating a royal army twice its size. Richard perished and Henry VII, the first of a new Tudor dynasty, acceded to the throne. But for all its significance, the precise site is unclear: at least three alternative sites have been located. The Heritage Lottery fund has made £1.35m available for research on the site issue, which, it is hoped, will see the site revitalised. The three-year research project is expected to be completed by next July.

8 Flodden, 9 SEPTEMBER 1513

Where: Near Branxton, Northumberland.

Who: English under Earl of Surrey vs Scots under King James IV.

What happened: James IV of Scotland had been persuaded to invade England to divert troops away from the war on the continent, and this was one of the major battles. Despite initial Scottish success, the battle on Flodden Edge proved calamitous for him. Scottish casualties were heavy and among the 10,000 killed on their side were 12 earls, 13 barons, five heirs to titles, three bishops, two abbots and the king. Though a monument to the battle was erected in 1910 on Pipers Hill, access by foot is limited and there are no public footpaths across the battlefield.

9 Pinkie Cleugh, 10 SEPTEMBER 1547

Where: Musselburgh, East Lothian.

Who: English under the Duke of Somerset vs Scots under Earl of Arran.

What happened: Attempts by the English to link England and Scotland through the marriage of the young Queen Mary of Scotland and Edward VI of England, collapsed into conflict, known as the Rough Wooing, in 1544-5. This key battle resulted in a heavy defeat for the Scots. The Battlefields Trust has concerns about plans to develop the site commercially, which could result in it being built over.

10 Naseby, 14 JUNE 1645

Where: Villages of Naseby, Sibbertoft and Clipston, Northants.

Who: Royalist army, nominally under Charles I but in effect commanded by Prince Rupert, vs Parliamentarian army under Sir Thomas Fairfax.

What happened: Parliament's New Model Army destroyed King Charles I's main field army in the decisive battle of the civil war. Only about 4,000 Royalists escaped the field as Charles's forces were annihilated. Yet in 1992 - the 350th anniversary of the English Civil War - plans were made to bisect this site with the A14 motorway link. The road was eventually built, despite the creation of the Battlefields Trust to resist the plans. Today, there remain few rights of way at the site and little opportunity to explore on foot. Neither does information at the site match the national significance of the battle. The Battlefields Trust is currently developing a programme to enhance the on-site information about the battle.

11 Worcester, 3 SEPTEMBER 1651

Where: South of Worcester.

Who: Royalists commanded by Charles II vs Parliamentarians commanded by Oliver Cromwell.

What happened: This was the last battle of the civil war. It extinguished all hopes of the Royalists regaining power by force, forced Charles into exile and secured Cromwell his dominant political and military position, contributing to his appointment in 1653 as Lord Protector. Evidence of the battle site includes impact scars on the tower of Powick church - probably a result of initial skirmishes. But it is felt there should be more to mark out the site and a two-year archaeological survey of the eight-mile battlefield site is under way and will hopefully lead to more information being made available to tourists.

12 Sedgemoor, 6 JULY 1685

Where: Westonzoyland, Somerset.

Who: Rebel troops under the Duke of Monmouth vs army of King James II led by Lord Feversham.

What happened: Monmouth, the illegitimate son of Charles II, became - against his better judgement - a figurehead for the Protestants opposing the Catholic King James II in the so-called Pitchfork Rebellion. After an initial surprise advance, King James's superiority told and the Duke was hanged. There is little to tell visitors how important the site is considering a huge amount of detail is known.